The Foundation: High-Quality Automotive 3D Models

The automotive industry has always been at the forefront of innovation, constantly pushing boundaries in design, engineering, and manufacturing. Today, the world of 3D modeling has become an indispensable tool, revolutionizing everything from vehicle conceptualization and visualization to the creation of custom physical parts through 3D printing. For artists, designers, game developers, and engineers, understanding the intricate workflows of 3D car models is crucial.

From crafting pixel-perfect renders for marketing campaigns to optimizing assets for immersive virtual reality experiences, and even fabricating bespoke components, the journey of a 3D car model is complex and fascinating. This comprehensive guide will take you deep into the technical aspects of 3D automotive design, exploring everything from foundational modeling principles and advanced rendering techniques to critical optimization strategies for game engines, and the precise requirements for transforming digital designs into tangible, 3D-printed custom car parts. We’ll uncover industry best practices, common challenges, and the transformative potential of high-quality 3D assets, empowering you to navigate this dynamic field with expertise.

The Foundation: High-Quality Automotive 3D Models

At the heart of any successful automotive project, be it a stunning render, an interactive game, or a 3D-printed prototype, lies a meticulously crafted 3D car model. The quality of this foundational asset dictates the potential for realism, performance, and versatility across all subsequent applications. Automotive models are inherently complex, characterized by smooth, continuous curves, sharp panel gaps, and intricate mechanical details. Achieving photorealism or functional accuracy demands a deep understanding of modeling principles.

High-quality 3D car models begin with precision. Designers often work from engineering blueprints, CAD data, or extensive reference photography to capture every nuance of the vehicle’s form. This initial phase requires meticulous attention to scale, proportions, and the subtle interplay of light and shadow on the car’s surfaces. The choice of modeling technique, whether it’s polygon modeling with subdivision surfaces or NURBS, significantly impacts the final output and its suitability for various uses. Platforms like 88cars3d.com specialize in providing these high-fidelity models, ensuring a robust starting point for diverse projects.

The Anatomy of a High-Poly Car Model

High-polygon models, often favored for cinematic renders, product visualization, and close-up shots, are characterized by their immense detail and smooth, flowing surfaces. These models typically utilize subdivision surface modeling techniques (e.g., Catmull-Clark in 3ds Max, Blender, Maya), where a relatively low-polygon base mesh is smoothed by an algorithm at render time or dynamically in the viewport. This approach allows for incredible surface fidelity and curvature continuity, essential for reflecting light realistically on automotive paint. A high-poly car model might easily exceed several million polygons, especially when accounting for detailed interiors, engine bays, and undercarriage components. Critical elements include precise panel gaps, accurate reflections, and intricate details on headlights, taillights, and badging, all built with an emphasis on preserving the original design intent.

Optimizing for Performance: The Art of Retopology

While high-poly models are excellent for static renders, they are often too dense for real-time applications like video games, AR/VR experiences, or even some animation pipelines. This is where retopology becomes crucial. Retopology is the process of creating a new, optimized mesh on top of an existing high-polygon model, aiming for a significantly lower polygon count while retaining the visual fidelity and silhouette of the original. For a game-ready car asset, polygon counts might range from 50,000 to 300,000 triangles, depending on the level of detail required and the target platform. The goal is to achieve an efficient edge flow that allows for proper deformation (if animated), clean UV mapping, and minimal distortion, all while being performant enough for real-time rendering. This optimized mesh is then typically used to bake normal maps, ambient occlusion maps, and other texture details from the high-poly source, transferring its rich detail to the low-poly counterpart without the computational cost.

Precision Crafting: Topology and UV Mapping Essentials

The structural integrity of a 3D car model is defined by its topology, while its visual surface appeal is unlocked through meticulous UV mapping. These two processes are intrinsically linked and dictate how well a model will deform, render, and accept textures. For automotive models, where smooth, reflective surfaces are paramount, good topology and efficient UV layouts are not just recommendations – they are absolute necessities for achieving professional results.

Poor topology can lead to rendering artifacts, pinching, or undesirable deformations, especially when subdivision surfaces are applied. Similarly, sloppy UV mapping results in stretched, distorted, or blurry textures, undermining the realism of even the most sophisticated PBR materials. Mastering these techniques is fundamental for any 3D artist working with vehicles, ensuring that the digital model is robust enough for every stage of the production pipeline, from initial visualization to the final rendered product or optimized game asset.

Flawless Topology for Automotive Surfaces

Automotive topology primarily relies on quad-based polygonal modeling, where every face is a four-sided polygon. This ensures predictable subdivision behavior and smooth surfaces. Key principles include:

• Edge Flow: Edges should follow the natural curves and contours of the car, defining panel lines, creases, and hard edges with precision. This allows for clean deformation and accurate reflection lines.
• Even Distribution: Polygons should be as evenly sized and distributed as possible, especially on large, flat surfaces, to prevent stretching or pinching when subdivided.
• Poles and Stars: While 3-sided (tris) and 5-sided+ (n-gons) polygons are generally avoided on subdivision surfaces, poles (vertices with more than 4 connecting edges) are sometimes necessary. Strategic placement, usually in flatter areas or away from prominent curves, minimizes their visual impact.
• Hard Edges and Creases: Techniques like adding multiple supporting edge loops close to a hard edge (e.g., around a wheel arch or door seam) or using crease weights define sharp transitions while still maintaining a quad-based mesh.

Achieving clean topology involves careful planning and often iterative refinement, ensuring the mesh is both aesthetically pleasing and technically sound.

Strategic UV Mapping for Realistic Texturing

UV mapping is the process of unwrapping a 3D mesh into a 2D space, allowing textures to be applied without distortion. For complex automotive surfaces, strategic UV mapping is critical:

• Minimize Seams: Place UV seams in inconspicuous areas, such as along natural panel lines, under the car, or within crevices, to hide texture breaks.
• Reduce Distortion: Use mapping techniques like “Pelt mapping” or “LSCM” (Least Squares Conformal Mapping) to evenly distribute UVs and minimize texture stretching. Checkers maps are invaluable for visualizing distortion.
• Uniform Texel Density: Ensure that all parts of the model have a consistent texel density (pixels per unit of surface area). This prevents some areas from appearing blurry while others are sharp. Tools like “UV Layout” or built-in UV editors in 3ds Max or Blender often have features to achieve this.
• UDIM Workflow: For extremely detailed car models with multiple high-resolution texture sets (e.g., different materials for body, interior, tires), UDIMs (U-Dimension) allow you to break up the UV space into multiple tiles. This is common in film VFX and high-end automotive visualization, enabling artists to work with 4K or 8K textures for different parts of the car without exceeding a single texture map’s resolution limits.

Effective UV mapping is a cornerstone for professional texturing, ensuring that your PBR materials look their best and your final renders are convincing.

Breathing Life into Surfaces: PBR Materials and Advanced Shading

Once a 3D car model boasts impeccable topology and UV mapping, the next crucial step is to imbue it with realistic surface properties through materials and shading. The industry standard for achieving photorealism is Physically Based Rendering (PBR). PBR workflows simulate how light interacts with surfaces in the real world, producing consistent and believable results across different lighting conditions and renderers. This approach allows artists to accurately represent the complex interplay of color, reflectivity, and roughness that defines automotive finishes, glass, chrome, and interior fabrics.

Crafting compelling PBR materials for vehicles goes beyond simply assigning colors; it involves understanding the physical properties of various substances and translating them into a shader network. This often requires balancing artistic intent with scientific accuracy to create materials that not only look stunning but also behave realistically under diverse lighting scenarios. Whether you’re aiming for a showroom-quality car paint or a worn, aged interior, PBR provides the framework for achieving unparalleled realism.

The Science of Physically Based Rendering (PBR)

PBR is not just a trend; it’s a fundamental shift in how materials are defined, based on how light behaves in the physical world. Key PBR maps and their roles include:

• Albedo (or Base Color): This map defines the diffuse color of the surface, representing the color of the material without any lighting information. It should be desaturated for metals.
• Normal Map: Stores surface normal information in image format, allowing low-poly models to display high-poly surface detail (like subtle dents or panel lines) without adding geometry.
• Roughness Map: Controls the microscopic surface irregularities that scatter light. A value of 0 (black) is perfectly smooth (mirror-like), while 1 (white) is extremely rough (matte). This is crucial for differentiating materials like polished chrome from brushed metal.
• Metallic Map: Indicates whether a material is metallic (1 or white) or dielectric (0 or black). Metals reflect light differently and absorb less diffuse light.
• Ambient Occlusion (AO) Map: Simulates soft shadows where objects are close together, adding depth and contact shadows without needing complex lighting setups.
• Height/Displacement Map: Used for adding actual geometric detail to a surface, often for intricate textures like tire treads or embossed logos, which can be expensive computationally.

These maps are interconnected within a shader network, with values influencing how light rays are absorbed, reflected, and scattered, resulting in a physically accurate representation.

Crafting Realistic Car Paint and Interior Materials

Automotive materials, especially car paint, are among the most challenging to replicate due to their complex layered structure:

• Car Paint: Often consists of a base coat (color, metallic flakes), a clear coat (glossy, reflective, sometimes anisotropic), and sometimes a pearl coat. PBR shaders handle this through layered materials, using metallic and roughness maps to define the base coat, and a separate clear coat layer with its own roughness and IOR (Index of Refraction) settings for accurate reflections. Anisotropy (direction-dependent reflectivity, like brushed metal or polished plastics) can further enhance realism for certain paint types or finishes.
• Glass: Requires accurate transmission and refraction properties, often with subtle tinting. PBR glass shaders utilize IOR values (e.g., 1.5-1.6 for common glass), absorption colors, and appropriate roughness for smudges or dirt.
• Chrome and Metals: Highly reflective materials are defined by high metallic values and very low roughness. Variations in roughness maps create brushed or worn effects.
• Interior Fabrics and Leathers: These require diffuse textures combined with roughness maps for tactile feel, and often normal maps for subtle weave or grain details. Subsurface scattering can be added for materials like soft leather or certain plastics to simulate light scattering within the material.

Advanced shader networks allow artists to blend these properties, adding details like dust, scratches, or moisture to achieve an even higher level of realism.

Capturing the Vision: Professional Automotive Rendering Workflows

With a meticulously modeled and textured 3D car, the next step is to transform it into a captivating visual. Rendering is the process of generating a 2D image from a 3D scene, and for automotive projects, this demands both technical mastery and an artistic eye. Whether the goal is a static hero shot, a dynamic animation, or an interactive configurator, a professional rendering workflow ensures the final output meets the highest standards of realism and aesthetic appeal.

The choice of renderer, lighting strategy, camera angles, and post-processing techniques all play a critical role in shaping the mood and impact of the image. Achieving photorealism in automotive rendering often involves meticulous attention to detail in replicating how light behaves on highly reflective and contoured surfaces. It’s about more than just pressing the render button; it’s about crafting an entire visual narrative that highlights the vehicle’s design and features effectively.

Illuminating Your Scene: Lighting Techniques

Effective lighting is the single most important factor in achieving realistic renders. For automotive visualization, several techniques are commonly employed:

• HDRI (High Dynamic Range Imaging): HDRI panoramas are widely used to provide realistic environmental lighting and reflections. A high-quality HDRI can instantly place the car in a convincing outdoor or indoor setting, offering complex, naturalistic lighting that is difficult to replicate with manual lights. Renderers like Corona, V-Ray, Cycles, and Arnold all support HDRI environments, often with options to rotate, scale, and adjust their intensity.
• Physical Light Sources: Beyond HDRIs, physical lights (area lights, spot lights, mesh lights) are used to simulate studio setups, create specific highlights, or emphasize design features. Softbox setups, rim lights, and fill lights are common for showcasing body lines and creating dramatic shadows.
• Light Rigs: Professional automotive studios often use standardized light rigs to ensure consistency across different models or shots. These rigs might include a large overhead softbox, side fill lights, and specific accent lights for wheels or badging.
• Shadow Control: Pay close attention to shadow softness and color. Hard, crisp shadows can define form, while softer shadows create a more diffused, elegant look. Contact shadows are particularly important around tires and undercarriage.

Experimentation with light positions, intensities, and colors is key to finding the perfect illumination for your automotive masterpiece.

Mastering Render Settings and Post-Processing

The rendering engine and its settings are critical for optimizing quality and render times. Each renderer (e.g., Corona Renderer, V-Ray, Blender Cycles, Arnold) has its unique strengths and parameters.

• Sampling and Denoising: Modern renderers use various sampling techniques (e.g., path tracing, unbiased rendering) to calculate light bounces. Higher sample counts result in cleaner images but longer render times. Built-in denoisers (like NVIDIA OptiX, Intel Open Image Denoise) can significantly reduce noise in lower-sample renders, speeding up the workflow without sacrificing much detail.
• Render Passes (AOV’s): Professional workflows utilize render passes (or Arbitrary Output Variables – AOV’s) to separate different components of the render, such as diffuse, reflections, refractions, shadows, Z-depth, and object IDs. This allows for non-destructive adjustments and greater control during post-processing.
• Post-Processing: This is where the rendered image truly comes to life. Software like Adobe Photoshop or Foundry Nuke is used for:
  • Color Grading: Adjusting hue, saturation, and luminance to enhance mood and realism.
  • Lens Effects: Adding subtle bloom, glare, chromatic aberration, or vignetting to simulate real camera lenses.
  • Depth of Field (DOF): Blurring foreground or background elements to draw focus to the car.
  • Compositing: Combining render passes, adding background plates, integrating foreground elements, and painting in finer details like dust or rain.

A strong understanding of both the technical capabilities of your renderer and the artistic principles of post-production is essential for producing truly stunning automotive visuals.

Driving Interactivity: Game Engine and Real-Time Optimization

The transition of 3D car models from static renders to interactive, real-time environments like video games, AR/VR experiences, and virtual configurators presents a unique set of challenges. Performance is paramount in these applications, demanding highly optimized assets that maintain visual fidelity without sacrificing frame rates. Game engines like Unity and Unreal Engine require a careful balance of geometric detail, texture resolution, and efficient material setups to run smoothly across diverse hardware.

Optimizing 3D car models for real-time use involves a deep understanding of rendering pipelines, culling techniques, and asset management. Neglecting these steps can lead to sluggish performance, visual glitches, and a frustrating user experience. The goal is to deliver a visually rich experience that is also responsive and stable, a crucial factor when sourcing models from marketplaces such as 88cars3d.com, which often provide optimized assets.

LODs and Culling: Balancing Detail and Performance

One of the primary strategies for managing detail in real-time environments is the implementation of Level of Detail (LODs) and various culling techniques:

• Level of Detail (LODs): LODs are multiple versions of the same 3D model, each with a progressively lower polygon count. As the camera moves further away from the car, the engine automatically switches to a lower-detail LOD, saving computational resources. A typical setup might include:
  • LOD0: Full detail, 50k-300k polygons, for close-up views.
  • LOD1: Medium detail, 15k-50k polygons, for mid-range views.
  • LOD2: Low detail, 5k-15k polygons, for distant views.
  • LOD3: Very low detail, a few thousand polygons, or even a billboard for extreme distances.

  The transition between LODs needs to be smooth and imperceptible to the user.

• Occlusion Culling: This technique prevents objects that are hidden by other objects (e.g., a car behind a building) from being rendered, further reducing draw calls.
• Frustum Culling: Objects outside the camera’s view frustum are not rendered. While a basic optimization, it’s essential for keeping render budgets manageable in large scenes.

Texture Atlasing and Draw Call Reduction

Efficient texture and material management is another cornerstone of real-time optimization:

• Texture Atlasing: Combining multiple smaller textures (e.g., for different car parts like headlights, emblems, wipers) into a single, larger texture map (a “texture atlas”). This reduces the number of texture lookups by the GPU, improving performance.
• Draw Call Reduction: Each time the CPU tells the GPU to render an object or a batch of objects, it incurs a “draw call.” Too many draw calls can quickly bottleneck performance. Strategies to reduce them include:
  • Batching: Combining multiple meshes that share the same material into a single mesh for rendering.
  • Instancing: When multiple identical objects (e.g., a fleet of identical cars) are present, the engine can render them using a single draw call, varying their position, rotation, and scale with per-instance data.
  • Material Optimization: Consolidating materials where possible. A complex car might still need several materials (body, glass, tires, interior), but artists should aim to minimize unique materials.
• Shader Optimization: Complex shaders with many calculations can be performance intensive. Simplifying shader graphs, using pre-calculated lighting (light baking), and avoiding expensive real-time effects when possible can lead to significant gains.

By meticulously applying these optimization techniques, developers can ensure that high-quality 3D car models deliver smooth, immersive experiences even on resource-constrained platforms.

Beyond the Screen: 3D Printing Custom Car Parts and AR/VR Integration

The utility of high-quality 3D car models extends far beyond digital rendering and game development. Two particularly transformative applications are 3D printing for custom car parts and integration into Augmented and Virtual Reality (AR/VR) experiences. Both fields leverage the digital fidelity of 3D assets to create tangible objects or immersive digital interactions, respectively, but each demands specific technical considerations and optimization strategies.

3D printing allows for unprecedented levels of customization and rapid prototyping of automotive components, from aesthetic trim pieces to functional brackets. Meanwhile, AR/VR offers novel ways to interact with vehicles, enabling virtual showrooms, training simulations, and immersive design reviews. Understanding the unique requirements for these applications ensures that your 3D models are not only visually stunning but also functionally viable and performant within these cutting-edge environments.

Preparing 3D Models for Flawless 3D Printing

While a model optimized for rendering or gaming looks great on screen, it often requires significant preparation for 3D printing. The transition from digital mesh to physical object demands precise geometric integrity:

• Watertight Meshes: The most critical requirement. A 3D model for printing must be a “manifold” or “watertight” mesh, meaning it has no holes, non-manifold edges, or inverted normals. Every edge must be shared by exactly two faces, forming a completely enclosed volume. Gaps, internal geometry, or disconnected shells will lead to print failures. Software like Meshmixer, Netfabb, or even built-in tools in Blender (3D Print Toolbox add-on) and 3ds Max can help identify and repair these issues.
• Wall Thickness: Ensure that all parts of the model have sufficient wall thickness (typically 0.8mm-2mm depending on the print material and desired strength). Thin walls can be too fragile or simply won’t print correctly. Conversely, excessively thick solid parts can waste material and increase print time.
• Scale and Units: Verify that the model is at the correct real-world scale and uses consistent units (e.g., millimeters for FDM, centimeters for larger SLA prints). Incorrect scaling is a common printing error.
• File Formats: The most common file formats for 3D printing are STL (stereolithography), OBJ, and sometimes 3MF. STL is prevalent due to its simplicity and wide support. Always export with binary encoding for smaller file sizes.
• Supported Geometry: For FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) printers, consider overhangs and bridges, which may require support structures. For SLA (Stereolithography) or SLS (Selective Laser Sintering), supports are also often needed to prevent deformation or ensure successful curing.
• Mesh Resolution: While too high a resolution can bloat file size, too low a resolution will result in a blocky, faceted print. Find a balance where curves appear smooth without excessive polygon count.

Designing Custom Automotive Components with 3D Printing in Mind

3D printing empowers designers and enthusiasts to create custom car parts that were once impossible or prohibitively expensive.

• Prototyping: Rapidly iterate on designs for new components like custom grilles, dashboard trims, intake manifolds, or aerodynamic elements. Print multiple versions to test fit, aesthetics, and ergonomics.
• Functional Parts: With advanced materials like carbon fiber reinforced nylon or high-temperature resins, 3D printers can produce functional parts for classic cars (e.g., rare console buttons, obscure brackets) or even performance modifications (e.g., lightweight air ducts, custom mounting solutions).
• Aesthetic Modifications: Create unique badges, interior trim pieces, custom shift knobs, or exterior body kit elements that perfectly match a personalized vision.
• Tooling and Jigs: Fabricate custom tools, jigs, and fixtures for car restoration or specific assembly tasks, improving efficiency and precision.

The ability to produce custom 3D car parts quickly and cost-effectively has democratized automotive design and modification, moving it from specialized workshops to individual garages.

Immersive Experiences: AR/VR Optimization

For AR/VR, the demands are similar to game engines but often more stringent due to lower frame rate tolerances (to prevent motion sickness) and potentially mobile hardware constraints:

• Extreme Low Poly: While game assets might be 50k-300k, AR/VR models, especially for mobile, often need to be under 50k triangles for the entire scene, or even lower per individual asset.
• Batching & Draw Calls: Even more critical than in traditional games. Combining meshes and minimizing materials is essential.
• Efficient Shaders: Complex shader graphs are a performance killer in AR/VR. Stick to simple PBR materials, potentially baking complex lighting information directly into textures (lightmaps) rather than calculating it in real-time.
• Occlusion Culling: Aggressive culling strategies are vital to ensure only visible geometry is processed.
• File Formats: GLB (GLTF Binary) and USDZ are increasingly popular for AR/VR due to their ability to embed models, materials, textures, and even animations into a single, compact file, suitable for web-based AR experiences.

Leveraging marketplaces like 88cars3d.com for pre-optimized models can significantly accelerate AR/VR development, providing a solid foundation for immersive automotive experiences.

The Future of Automotive Design: Digital Twins and Hyper-Customization

The journey of 3D car models from digital concept to diverse applications underscores a powerful paradigm shift in the automotive industry. The confluence of advanced 3D modeling, rendering, simulation, and manufacturing technologies is leading to an era of unprecedented efficiency, innovation, and personalization. Two particularly significant trends shaping this future are the rise of digital twins and the growing demand for hyper-customization, both profoundly enabled by high-fidelity 3D assets.

These developments not only streamline traditional automotive workflows but also open entirely new avenues for design, manufacturing, and consumer engagement. As technology continues to evolve, the ability to create, manipulate, and deploy sophisticated 3D models will be an increasingly vital skill, driving the industry towards more dynamic, responsive, and tailored solutions.

Digital Twins and Virtual Prototyping

A digital twin is a virtual replica of a physical asset, continuously updated with real-time data from its physical counterpart. In the automotive industry, this concept is revolutionary:

• Accelerated Design Cycles: Designers can virtually test new components or entire vehicle iterations in a simulated environment, drastically reducing the need for costly physical prototypes. This includes virtual crash testing, aerodynamic simulations, and ergonomic assessments.
• Manufacturing Optimization: Digital twins of production lines allow engineers to optimize workflows, identify bottlenecks, and predict maintenance needs before they occur, leading to more efficient manufacturing processes.
• Predictive Maintenance: For vehicles already in operation, a digital twin can monitor performance data in real-time, predict potential failures, and recommend proactive maintenance, enhancing safety and extending vehicle lifespan.
• Personalized Ownership: Customers could potentially have a digital twin of their own car, allowing them to virtually explore upgrades, track performance, or even design custom accessories to be 3D printed.

These virtual representations, built upon incredibly detailed 3D models, are transforming how cars are designed, built, and maintained throughout their lifecycle.

The Rise of Hyper-Customization and Aftermarket Parts

The ability to easily modify and print custom 3D car parts is leading to an explosion in hyper-customization, moving beyond factory options to truly bespoke vehicles:

• Personalized Aesthetics: Car enthusiasts can design and 3D print unique body kits, interior trim, custom badges, or specialized light housings that reflect their individual style.
• Functional Upgrades: Custom brackets for aftermarket components, redesigned intake manifolds for improved airflow, or lightweight interior panels can all be precisely engineered and printed.
• Restoration and Legacy Parts: For classic car owners, 3D printing offers a lifeline. Obsolete or rare parts can be reverse-engineered and reprinted, keeping vintage vehicles on the road for longer.
• Democratization of Design: Small businesses and individual creators can now compete with larger manufacturers by offering highly niche and specialized custom parts, fostered by accessible 3D modeling software and affordable 3D printers.

This trend empowers consumers with unprecedented control over their vehicles, transforming them from mass-produced items into truly personalized machines. Platforms like 88cars3d.com play a crucial role by providing the high-quality base models from which these customizations can originate, offering a starting point for endless automotive innovation.

Conclusion

From the initial polygon mesh to the final rendered image, an immersive game asset, or a tangible 3D-printed component, the journey of a 3D car model is a testament to the power of digital creativity and technical precision. We’ve explored the critical importance of clean topology and efficient UV mapping for flawless surfaces, delved into the science of PBR materials for lifelike textures, and navigated the complex workflows of professional rendering and real-time optimization for interactive experiences.

Crucially, we’ve also highlighted the transformative potential of 3D printing in automotive design, enabling the creation of custom car parts and rapid prototyping, alongside the exciting possibilities of AR/VR for immersive visualization. These technologies are not just tools; they are drivers of innovation, pushing the boundaries of what’s possible in automotive design, manufacturing, and personalized ownership. By mastering these intricate workflows and leveraging high-quality assets available from resources like 88cars3d.com, you are not just creating models – you are shaping the future of the automotive world. Embrace the technical challenges, hone your craft, and unlock the limitless potential that lies within every polygon and pixel.

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